Questioning History: Did the 'Roaring 20s' genuinely 'roar'?

Life in the United States during the 1920’s was a time of glorious affluence for many, hence the appellation (‘roaring 20s’) awarded to the period. The 1920’s saw the emergence of the jazz craze, the ‘new woman’, and many technological innovations that had once seemed utterly unachievable; The ‘unachievable’ were now everyday household items. The country experienced change to almost every aspect of life including society, culture, and the economy. While some have argued that life in the 20s was not as marvellous as it appeared to be, with a growing cultural divide between generations and the economic catastrophe of 1929, the best part of the decade saw mass prosperity as the world had never seen it before. The 20s truly did ‘roar’.

The shift in cultural standards during the 1920’s was remarkable, it saw the emergence of a far more freeing, prosperous way of life and was undoubtedly one of the greatest changes to society in the US. Notably, the technological innovation that allowed for the spread of new ideas, radios. An advancement of great significance due to the way in which it provided a forum of entertainment and political insight, that all were able to access regardless of their location. This notion of national community is supported by radio historian, Susan Douglas, who claims it creates ‘a sense of national communion … on entirely new geographic, temporal, and cognitive levels … make more concrete the notion of the nation’. Douglas’ conviction is supported by the fact that so much as 60% of all families across the United States owned a radio by the end of the decade, and it was said to have been one of the most unifying advances of the age. It brought together rural and urban communities and gradually became the common medium of amusement, providing people with a chance at enjoying a luxury. Illiteracy was a major problem during the 1920’s, accounting for roughly 14% of the entire population. However, the development of the radio enabled those who could not read to remain in touch with the ongoing events in the country. Radios, as said by Susan Douglas, created a sense of ‘national communion’, bridging the gap between rich and poor, between rural and urban areas. It promoted inclusivity and widespread enjoyment. Furthermore, this idea of a new-found ability to enjoy life and exercise freedom, particularly for women and the working class who had been repressed in the pre-war era, is further evident in the emergence of ‘the new woman’. The entire image of what people believed a woman should be and look like was transformed.  A demographic of people who became increasingly referred to as ‘flappers’ throughout the decade, came to represent the cultural shift in the 1920’s. This is supported by historian Joshua Zietz who said that ‘the flapper marked the rise of a new youth culture that emphasized individuality, pleasure, and sexual expression’. Zietz’s claim is supported by the fact that women’s skirts, once worn at ankle length, were now raised to above the knee, arguably epitomising the changing attitudes that were swiftly spreading across the United States. Similarly, the discarding of corsets, restrictive attire that was worn by many women pre-war, symbolised their rejection of societal moulds. The term ‘flapper’ was not exclusive to the younger generation. Regardless of age and race, any woman could embrace this modern and liberating lifestyle, shattering nineteenth century stereotypes of the passionless white middle-class woman, and redefined womanhood. The 1920’s had opened the gateway for women to exercise the freedom they had been yearning for. It reimagined the visions of what an ideal, respectable woman looked like in the eyes of Americans. Gone were the days of women being accompanied by a chaperone were they to leave the house. Evidently, the cultural shift during the 1920’s was marvellous for many sectors of society. The rural population were no longer completely isolated, and women had freed themselves from the restrictive societal stereotypes. Thus, this newfound liberation was essential in making the decade as prosperous as history tells it.

The economic competence of the government under Calvin Coolidge allowed even the poorest to enjoy a prosperous life. At a business organisations meeting on July 11^th, 1928, Coolidge claimed ‘I have rejoiced in keeping down the annual budget, in reducing taxes, and paying off the national debt, because the influence of such action is felt in every home in the land…We call these results prosperity’. This ‘prosperity’ is evident in that the top marginal income tax rates were lowered from 73% to 24%, unemployment averaged at a mere 3.3%, and by the end of his term 98% of the population paid no income tax at all. The contingencies put in place resulted in the average person's accumulation of wealth and thus their ability to live a prosperous life. One of these ‘luxuries’ now accessible to the masses was the cinema. Their popularity grew extraordinarily, evident in the increase of 60 million ticket sales throughout the 1920’s. They became forums of socialisation, entertainment, and warmth. Many started to replicate the lifestyle displayed in movies, including beauty standards set by the likes of Hollywood icon Clara Bow. However, it could be argued that this quote lacks reliability given that it was said by Coolidge himself. It would be unlikely that Coolidge would criticise his own premiership. Nevertheless, this was said in a meeting of the business organisation of the government, a formal setting whereby facts and figures are far less likely to be exaggerated. An official setting such as this, holds no place for overstatements as it is a place of political discussion and policy making over issues concerning the public. Dramatisation of figures creates the potential for ill informed schemes to be made and carried out. Therefore, the nature of this source increases its validity. It being a meeting held in 1928, a year prior to the Wall Street Crash, also improves the source’s reliability given that the country was indeed at peak affluence at the time. The cultural shift during the 1920’s was astronomical. Many who had once been minorities could now enjoy the same liberation as the rest of society. Luxuries were accessible to the masses thus establishing prosperity across many demographics.

While cultural shifts improved the lives of many, certain changes did the opposite. The jazz craze, as well as particular showings in cinemas, fuelled racist thinking. Bigoted ideologies became rampant across America. Jazz was a style of music descendent from blues which became widely popular during the 1920’s given its upbeat tempo and connection to speakeasies. While popular among women and ethnic minorities, jazz was deeply frowned upon by the religious community and the older generation as they believed it to encourage suggestive dancing and behaviour. It was also frowned upon by non-progressive thinkers due to its black origins. The social divide created by the jazz craze was so ferocious it led to cities such as New York and Detroit banning it entirely. Historian, David Pietrusza, claimed that ‘During the 1920s, cultural conflict and modernization helped resuscitate the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) … they responded with anti-Catholicism and anti-Semitism’. Throughout the first World War, the preeminence of the KKK had been suppressed as priorities now lay with protecting and fighting for the country. However, as supported by Pietrusza, in the years following the war the jazz craze saw the violent re-emergence of the KKK. The increasing number of radical films being shown at cinemas also contributed greatly. Notably, some KKK members have said that ‘Birth of a Nation’, directed by D. W. Griffith, an anti-black blockbuster film that promoted the southern “Lost Cause” perspective of the Civil War, inspired the resuscitation of the KKK as it shone light on their view of the civil war. Membership of this extremist organisation is said to have reached between 2.5 and 4 million during the 1920’s. Many black citizens were lynched, murdered, and tortured in the most inhumane ways ever seen. Nevertheless, while the country did see a rise of radical ideologies, it could be argued that the jazz age was ‘a powerful antidote to racism … bringing blacks and whites together’, as said by Owen McNally. Rather than an incitement of extremist views, it provided both white and black groups with a medium of entertainment that they could enjoy as a collective. Jazz musicians promoted racial equality and began building the path towards a unified America. With this in mind, the notion that certain cultural changes promoted injustice is debunked. As with everything in life, there is always the ugly side, that being the rise of the KKK, however the prosperity felt across America following the shift in cultural standards was far more preeminent.

Another aspect of society that saw marvellous change during the 1920’s was the economy. The world bore witness to a golden age like never before. The roaring 20s enabled any and all to make it large in the business world. Affluence was in abundance. Perhaps at the core of America’s economic greatness was the policies of Coolidge and his predecessor Harding. This is supported by historian David Greenburg who claimed, ‘Coolidge Prosperity: robust growth, rising wages, declining unemployment and inflation, and a bull market’. Greenburg’s claim is supported by the fact that under Coolidge’s premiership, the government adopted a laissez-faire approach to the economy, meaning that big businesses could expand without restrictions from the state. Prior to this, America assumed protectionist policies such as the Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act 1922. This imposed a tax on foreign goods, compelling people to purchase American manufactured commodities instead. Affluence was put at the forefront of the state’s priorities, with the economy growing by 42% during the 20s. New construction practically doubled, from $6.7 billion in 1920 to $12 billion in 1926. Per-capita gross domestic product also saw a significant increase from $6’460 to $8’016 per person. The state’s new approach to the economy generated the most impressive results that society had ever seen. America had entered its golden age in every sense of the word. As said by historian Andy Schmitz, 'Unemployment was at historical lows, wages were at historic highs’. Schmitz is correct in saying this as unemployment hit a low of 4.2% in 1928 and average wage levels soared. The typical salary of a person in 1912 was just $592, but by 1924, just 12 years later, this figure had essentially doubled reaching an unprecedented $1’303. For the typical American, their salary had increased, the price of goods had decreased, and their government was displaying the most economic competence of all states across the world following the war. People’s faith in the state was restored and individuals were prospering. Those who had been destined for nothing other than farm life in the pre-war era, now had opportunities to succeed in the business world. Prosperity was rife.

Another driving force behind economic prosperity was the birth of mass consumerism. Most industries across America, with the exception of agriculture, experienced an unprecedented boom during the 1920’s. The effects were evident, with financial writer for the Boston Journal, Donald Hanson, asserting in 1929, ‘The manufacturer would undoubtedly explain our prosperity by pointing to the development of mass production’. Almost every sector began mass producing in the hopes it would lead to mass consumerism. ‘People were caught up in the idea of how only rich people owned a lot of goods - driving a purchasing frenzy’. Washing machines, vacuum cleaners, and refrigerators, once seen as luxuries reserved for the rich, had now become everyday household items. Consumerism was fuelled by the electricity boom sparked in the early 1920’s. The industry increased astronomically in size and wealth. Electrical power was introduced into factories to help drive machinery, thus allowing for mass production. A prime example of this economic thinking was none other than Henry Ford and his automobiles. His business plan was to produce more goods in order to lower their market price – by 1925 the price of cars had plummeted to $290 when it had been $850 seventeen years previously. By 1929, Americans owned 23 million cars. Being a source written by a financial journalist, as opposed to an all rounding reporter, improves its validity greatly as Hanson was educated on economic issues and thus his opinion on such issues holds merit. He is not voicing an ill-informed opinion that would mislead the public. The article in question was published just months before the Wall Street Crash, thus at the time Hanson was correct in glamorising the economic boom of the 20s, further increasing its reliability. Mass consumerism spread rapidly allowing those who had never enjoyed luxuries a chance to experience the life of the wealthy. Business was prospering, and so were people.

While the economic excellence of the roaring twenties is apparent, some have discarded its importance for the common person. Others argue that the financial boom of the decade did not benefit the average person in the way history has told it, and the disaster that struck in 1929 is merely evidence of the underlying systemic problems of the economy. Daisy Worcester addressed the National conference of Social Work on July 18^th, 1929, claiming, ‘This myth of prosperity, if believed, will lead to inevitable catastrophe. America’s prosperity is for only twenty-four percent of the people, and this percentage owns all the wealth of this country’. While America was experiencing an astronomical upturn in the economy, the distribution of wealth was far from even. The richest 1% of the country accounting for 14.5% of the country’s total income, thus supporting Worthington’s conviction. Unarguably, many within society were enjoying the benefits of the boom, however some groups became greatly disadvantaged, falling into poverty. Farmers were amongst those who did not reap the benefits of the 20s. A farmer’s average pay was roughly $275 annually, meanwhile the rest of the country’s was $750. Agriculture was overproducing while the rest of society was under consuming, resulting in a vicious cycle of wasted resources, hours, and poverty. Professions in industries such as coal and mining were made obsolete, leaving many with no source of income, catalysing their fall into poverty. Worthington was right to say that ‘Inevitable catastrophe’ was looming over America, and it came a few months after her speech. The stock market crash of 1929 sent America into absolute financial turmoil and political mayhem. It marked the end of the decade of affluence that so many had enjoyed. While there were evidently those within society who remained trapped in a time of pre-war hardship, for many Americans, the roaring twenties was a golden age. People could buy the luxuries, once solely reserved for the richest in society, and salaries were increasing every year. Economically speaking, the United States most definitely prospered during the 1920s.

The 1920’s was an era of political excellence, another significant factor in the prosperity of the roaring 20s. Most notably, women’s suffrage. Historian Constance Rover has said that ‘There was a general desire that sacrifices should not be in vain and that a better world should come out of the war’. This desire for a fairer America was arguably the driving force behind the granting of women’s right to vote. Rover is correct in this claim as many were of the conviction that the women of America played a far more important role in World War 1 than what they had been credited for. With much of the male population over in Europe fighting for their country, it left a void at home that needed to be filled. Jobs had been abandoned and many houses had their source of income stripped. So, women began taking up professions that had been previously reserved for men. Women’s contribution to the war was great and apparent, paving the way for the granting of their suffrage. The monumental occasion took place on August 18^th, 1920, as the 19^th amendment. The passing of the 19^th amendment landmarked a decade of prosperity for women. The number of working women increased by 25%, and by 1929 it has been estimated that there were 10.6 million women working professionally, rather than living as merely housewives. The increase in employed women was largely due to their war effort, the new jobs brought about by the economic boom, and the changing societal standards. They were now professionals just as men were. For years they had demanded to be treated as equals, and the government's passing of the 19^th amendment simply enshrined this into law. It was a phenomenal piece of legislation that improved the lives of women, giving them the prestige to seek lives of their own rather than being dependent on men. This was a change in politics that generated affluence across the country, yet again contributing to the modern-day view that the 1920’s ‘roared’.

In addition, the lives of others within society were also greatly improved due to policies introduced by the government. Notably, that of veterans. Prior to Harding taking office in 1921, the institutions in place for those who had fought for their country in the first world war, were almost non-existent. While they were indeed eligible for benefits, the process of receiving them was so incredibly complex that many were unable to access them. Furthermore, the demand exceeded the supply. Thus, in response to this ever-growing issue, Harding prioritised the distribution of welfare, particularly for ex-military, and so the Veterans Bureau was born. It was said by the committee to be ‘one of the epochs of veteran relief’. This newly found organisation had one of the largest manpower of all government committees, with 5000 people working in the central office and a further 25 '000 working in the field. One of the bureau’s most significant developments was their expansion of veteran access to medical care. In 1922, the committee was granted a number of clinics from the Public Health Service, and Forbes, the first director, later went on to add many more. By June, the bureau had an estimated 100 clinics running. The committee championed the improvement of vocational rehabilitation. They aimed to prompt schools and other establishments who worked with disabled veterans to undertake a new approach to how they conducted such programmes. Additionally, they began setting up bureau ran residential and non-residential vocational schools. It was evident that Harding’s new policies, coupled with Forbes’s striving towards a more efficient welfare system, had unarguably given veterans a newfound prosperity in the post-war era. However, the reliability of this claim is limited given that this was said by the committee itself. It is unsurprising that the committee credited its own work highly and would be concerning if it didn’t. Should this have been said from an outside perspective, it would give the source far more reliability. Nevertheless, it is still credible seeing as this was a claim made to congress in a formal government setting. Claims made in such a setting are often reliable in what they are saying, and most definitely credible. The improvement that policies of the 1920’s made on the lives of veterans and women alike, further supports the notion that the 1920’s was a time of prosperity.

However, while policies made during the 1920’s did improve the lives of some, not all enjoyed such prosperity. Particularly farmers who endured the agricultural depression throughout most of the decade. Some have even gone so far as to claim that ‘the Great Depression for the American farmer really began after World War I’. The agricultural sector experienced a boom during the war and were encouraged by the government to increase production and loan out more land. However, in the aftermath of the war, the demand for American exports plummeted, subsequently so did the value of land and goods. Farmers in Minnesota gross cash income fell from $438 million in 1918, to $229 million in 1922. The new means of production made it harder to pause farming, resulting in the creation of a surplus, causing prices to drop dramatically. The price of corn per bushel fell from $1.30 to a mere forty-seven cents in a year. The drop in prices resulted in many being forced to live in dire conditions, with no access to electricity or running water. As a ploy to combat the agricultural depression, Hoover implemented the Federal Farm board in 1929, whose budget was $500 million. This act aimed to kick start the buying, selling, and storing of surplus produce. Despite the huge budget, the act proved ineffective. The deflation of the sector was too great. The money provided by the government was quickly exhausted and the losses of farmers amounted to more by the day. Many believed that the money pumped into this scheme was a waste and could have proved more effective if used as direct relief for farmers. While many have claimed that policies developed in the 1920s, including both the 19^th amendment and public law 67-47, were cultural resets that improved lives, while also being examples of political acumen. It cannot be said that all policies generated this type of prosperity, evident in Hoover’s Federal farm board. While it did not worsen the conditions of farmers, it didn’t have the desired effect either. The agricultural sector was in absolute ruin for most of the decade. Nevertheless, this was largely a result of policies made by the war time administration, and not Hoover’s policies. Rather, presidents in office dure the 20s were responsible for promoting liberty, therefore concluding that the roaring 20s were indeed a time of prosperity.

While it could be argued that ugliness arose in the face of prosperity, with the re-emergence of the KKK and a decade-long agricultural depression, which greatly hindered a large sector of economic development. Ultimately the 1920’s brought about far more affluence than anything else; with the consumer market booming, minority groups enjoying liberation they had never had before, and new innovations being brought onto the market. It truly was a golden age for many across the United States. People had access to technology, allowing them to keep up to date with the ongoings in the country, there were far less restrictions over individual freedoms, and a cultural shift saw the rise in popularity of film and other luxuries of the sort. The country united themselves in their own prosperity, following four long years of war and hardship. It is no coincidence that historians have coined the term ‘roaring’ for the decade, thus concluding that America was indeed greatly opulent during the 1920’s.

Primary sources:

-        Hanson, D.R. (1929) “Why This PROSPERITY,” The Forum, July.

-        Daisy Worthington Worcester Address, Natl. Conference of Social Work, June 18, 1929.

-        Annual Report, FY 1922, p. 6.- REPORTS

-        Collected commentary, economic prosperity in the 1920s (no date) Docslib. Available at: https://docslib.org/doc/7191692/collected-commentary-economic-prosperity-in-the-1920s (Accessed: August 5, 2022).

Secondary sources:

-        O’G, A.B.R. (2016) Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. London: Verso.

-        Joshua Zietz, Flapper: A Madcap Story of Sex, Style, Celebrity and the Women Who Made America Modern (New York: Crown Publishers, 2006), 8, 23; John D’Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters, 3d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 229, 233–234, 256–257; and Kitch, The Girl on the Magazine Cover, 121.

-        Olson, J. S. (1988) Historical dictionary of the 1920s: From World War I to the new deal, 1919-1933. New York etc,: Greenwood.

-        "What These People Need Is Radio": New Technology, the Press, and Otherness in 1920s America - Technology and Culture Vol. 44, No. 2 (Apr., 2003), pp. 285-305 (21 pages) Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press and the Society for the History of Technology

-        1920-1929 (no date) Radio and Television. Available at: https://radioandtelevision.weebly.com/1920-1929.html (Accessed: July 3, 2022).

-        Watkins, S. (2022) Live by values to be a stronger leader, Investor's Business Daily. Available at: https://www.investors.com/news/management/leaders-and-success/live-by-values-be-a-stronger-leader/ (Accessed: August 19, 2022).

-        The Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s (no date) Bill of Rights Institute. Available at: https://billofrightsinstitute.org/essays/the-ku-klux-klan-in-the-1920s (Accessed: September 2, 2022).

-        News, D. (2000) Jazz helped break down U.S. racial barriers, Deseret News. Deseret News. Available at: https://www.deseret.com/2000/7/17/19518148/jazz-helped-break-down-u-s-racial-barriers (Accessed: September 26, 2022).

-        Greenberg, D. et al. (2017) Calvin Coolidge: Domestic affairs, Miller Center. Available at: https://millercenter.org/president/coolidge/domestic-affairs (Accessed: September 30, 2022).

-        Amadeo, K. (no date) The economy in the 1920s and what caused the Great Depression, The Balance. Available at: https://www.thebalancemoney.com/roaring-twenties-4060511 (Accessed: November 26, 2022).

-        (no date) Prosperity and its limits. Available at: https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_a-history-of-the-united-states-vol-2/s09-01-prosperity-and-its-limits.html (Accessed: October 4, 2022).

-        Mintz, S. (no date) The Gilder Lehrman Institute of american history, Statistics: The American Economy during the 1920s | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. Available at: https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/teaching-resource/statistics-american-economy-during-1920s (Accessed: October 17, 2022).

-        Consumerism (no date) The Roaring 1920's. Available at: http://athenaandkim.weebly.com/consumerism.html (Accessed: September 20, 2022).

-        Amadeo, K. (no date) The economy in the 1920s and what caused the Great Depression, The Balance. Available at: https://www.thebalancemoney.com/roaring-twenties-4060511 (Accessed: October 1, 2022).

-        (no date) Women historians. Available at: https://www.johndclare.net/Women_historians.htm (Accessed: October 3, 2022).

-        Office, V.A.H. (2021) Veterans Affairs, Go to VA.gov. Available at: https://www.va.gov/history/features/016_VBA_100.asp (Accessed: October 18, 2022).

-        Agricultural policies of Herbert Hoover (no date) prezi.com. Available at: https://prezi.com/1_oy6jae6ejw/agricultural-policies-of-herbert-hoover/ (Accessed: November 1, 2022).

-        Rabinovitch-Fox, E. (2017) New women in early 20^th-century America, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History. Available at: oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-427 (Accessed: October 4, 2022).

-        Prosperity (no date) Prosperity, America in the 1920s, Primary Sources for Teachers, America in Class, National Humanities Center. Available at: americainclass.org/sources/becomingmodern/prosperity/prosperity.htm (Accessed: September 29, 2022).

-        The farming problem (no date) ushistory.org. Independence Hall Association. Available at: www.ushistory.org/us/49c.asp (Accessed: October 19, 2022).