Elvis looking through the lens: A historical review of the impact had by Elvis Presley on the 1960s.

Prior to his untimely death in 1977, Elvis Presley catalysed the modern flamboyancy of the music industry, becoming an icon in the pop culture sphere. His release of ‘Hound Dog’ in 1956 was one that had considerable ramifications to the 1960s. The controversy that engulfed this charted single can be viewed through many perspectives; the racial circumstances plaguing the United States that it both bettered and worsened, the political and religious turmoil prompted by its release, differing societal reactions, and its contribution to the history of the arts and music. The pursuit of history encourages historical awareness and difference: it inclines us to adopt numerous lenses when analysing events of the past. Perspective enables enlightenment, gazes alter the way history is interpreted thus lack thereof limits one’s historical knowledge. This essay seeks to remove the distortion of the past, which is adopted through time, presenting multiple interpretations that satisfy the memories of those who lived before us, and simultaneously illuminizing those who will come after[1], this stance has been one long held with Leopold von Ranke stating ‘History has had assigned to it the task of judging the past, of instructing the present for the benefit of the ages to come’[2]. For one to adequately ‘judge’ the past, one must be objective; willing to analyse the realms of history through the gaze of differing societal spheres. In accordance with this thesis, this essay seeks to evaluate the prominence of Elvis’ ‘Hound Dog’ during the 1960s, using multiple frameworks to guide the philosophy of the essay. ‘History carries two meanings in common parlance. [Referring] to what happened in the past and to the representation of that past in the work of historians’ (John Tosh, 2022). When synthesizing different representations of the past, one can compose a view that is less foreign to those who read it[3], a view that takes its stance from the varying perspectives that surround a period of history. Thus, using perspective, contemporary thought, and modern thought, this essay will come to sufficient conclusion to the significance of Elvis amidst the chaos of 1960s America.[4]

Firstly, using a Political History lens. The strict political divides of the 1950s and 60s, and the battle between Liberalism and Conservatism were barriers to Elvis. He overcame obstacles such as censorship, emerging as a liberal icon, despite holding some more traditional conservative beliefs in line with his Southern upbringing. Secondly, the racial circumstances plaguing the United States that it both bettered and worsened. Thirdly, we will use the perspective of a Social Historian to evaluate the impact of Elvis’ performance on the rapidly evolving society of 1950s America. He was at the heart of the clash between the increasingly liberal youth, and the morally conservative religious older generation. Finally, we will analyse the source regarding the History of Music and Pop Culture. His novel performance style, and prominence as a pioneering figurehead of the transforming celebrity culture, have had a lasting impact which can be undeniably seen in the present day. 

Regarding late 1950s America, we will define an icon as someone who holds significant influence, is admired or venerated, and leaves behind a lasting legacy. These are three factors which Elvis undoubtedly is compatible with, having shaped history beyond simply the sphere of music. It will be concluded that, when analysing his 5^th June performance with these varying historical approaches, Elvis was indeed an icon.

 

Political History: Written by Amy Wallace

The 1950s are remembered as America’s Golden Age where the post-war economy was flourishing, and popular culture was at the height of consumption. It was a time characterised by strict political divides between traditional American conservatism and the rise of liberalism. Family ideals of conservatism, upheld by tradition, were suddenly challenged by sexual liberalism, particularly amongst teenagers with sex, drugs and alcohol.[5] To understand why this new wave was of concern to older Americans, there must be an understanding of the conservatism that governed society. Religious and social conservatives aligned themselves with the Republican Party and wanted to conserve Christian morality and values found in foundational documents such as the Declaration of Independence.[6] Therefore, when the sexual liberalisation movement gained popularity, the new wave of rock and roll came under attack from conservatives as it profited from sexually liberal ideas.[7] Elvis was at the forefront of this criticism, especially after his notorious performance on the Milton Berle Show in June 1956 where his pelvic gyrations shocked a nation. From a political approach, this undermined the values that upheld the Republican party who saw the performance as the start of the sexualisation of middle class youth culture as the liberal dance moves endorsed sexual expression rather than traditional restraint.[8] Elvis’ scandalous performance which was described by journalist Ben Gross as ‘the kind of animalism that should be confined to dives and bordellos’[9] challenged the traditional respectabilities of television regulations. This signified Elvis as a liberal icon, revolting against conservative restrictions to pursue freedom of expression, a key pillar in the ideological roots of liberalism.

In the 1950 most entertainers did not take a public stance against political issues, especially in America where ideological divisions were strong. However, journalists were determined to reveal Elvis’ political affiliations. Barton Hickman interviewed Elvis for the Miami Herald in 1956 asking questions such as ‘What do you think of Egypt’s Premier Nasser grabbing the Suez Canal last week?’ to which Elvis responded ‘Suez? Man, you’re talking French to me now.’[10] Despite not revealing his outward political opinions, the context of ‘Hound Dog’ was revolutionary in a time of traditional conservatism, due to the song originally being from a black artist, Big Mama Thornton. In a time of segregation, the record was a huge success appealing to millions of young people signifying racial mixing in pre-Civil Rights America.[11] Though the song does not directly comment on the racism that characterised American conservatism, the context for its release was progressive and somewhat liberal for its era reflecting the changing culture and attitude surrounding race and politics in the 1950s. To young teenagers and civil rights activists alike, Elvis was a liberal icon revolutionising the world of pop culture and politics simultaneously. However, his later actions and southern upbringing morphed him from a liberal rebel to a conservative activist, though not an icon, in a matter of years. Other songs such as ‘Love Me Tender’ used the melody from Civil War song ‘Aura Lee’, which conservatives interpreted as an attempt to use traditional patriotic Americanism in a modern way.[12] Furthermore, his Southern upbringing, where conservatism is particularly strong, was reflected in his traits such as reserved, patriotic and devout. [13] However, as seen in the context of Hound Dog this ‘southerness’ did not extend to racialism, the historic stain and age of his conservative environment.

Though viewed as a liberal icon to the younger generation, the political response to Elvis was negative and demonstrated through censorship. In the music industry, restrictions may be enforced through radio stations, religious campaigns or pressure groups to target performance, distribution or consumption.[14] Hence, the arrival of Elvis created tension and fear from government agencies and the Church with Jesuit magazine, America, warning parents to ‘Beware Elvis Presley’[15] and Newsweek describing Elvis as ‘A Hillbilly on a Pedestal’.[16] Therefore, the Milton Berle performance of Hound Dog was bound to receive backlash. One political tactic taken following ‘Elvis the Pelvis’ performance was to edit him to only show him from the waist up, adhering to Federal Communications Commission regulations, a state controlled agency.[17] This meant that networks followed state censorship due to Elvis’ dance moves being representative of the rising sexual liberalisation movement. Another political tactic taken was to redefine rock and roll to incorporate it into family style conservative show business.[18] To Elvis, it became clear that to appear on television certain standards had to have been abided by encouraging adaptation of performance. This is where Elvis emerges as an icon. In the arts, a Nation-State will look to control the impact art has on a society[19] whereas Elvis rejected this, continuing to showcase his ‘gyrating pelvis’ for years to come. If one definition of a political icon is someone who can remain widely admired and significant despite agents of social and political control working to alienate them, Elvis certainly can be classified as such.

Race History: Written by Emilia Bartle 

Though included within the vast expanse of the social lens, the ethnic and racial dimensions is of such prominence, that it can and must be analysed independently when studying the career of pop icon Elvis. American popular culture has stood to appease the white population for decades; Black culture was confined to its origin ghettos, so they were not able to degenerate the white youth with their overtly eroticizing language and performance. This universal white gaze is said to have culminated in the alienation of black artists, disallowing their work to penetrate the pop culture world[20]. Elvis shot to stardom in a world of segregation, a world where black was deemed barbaric while white became the desired and superior race; despite such, Elvis Presley unapologetically internalised blackness throughout his career, providing a forum for the unsung artists to publicise their work. However, many, both modern and contemporary, have taken a rather opposing interpretation of Elvis’ career – this essay seeks to delve in the derivation of his work, but also the reaction to such. Following the 2022 Baz Luhrmann production ‘Elvis’, journalist JoliAmour DuBose-Morris characterized the singer as ‘merely a handsome white boy who benefitted from the oppression of Black people’. Elvis’ music is rooted in hymns and blues, a genre birthed by the black community which administered them with an arts form whereby they found refuge; It was the belief of some that Elvis had transformed a once pinnacle element of black culture into merely buoyant ‘jigs that white crowds could swing their arms to’ (DuBose-Morris, 2022). Perhaps his most widely known single, ‘Hound Dog’ was a ‘biting and scathing satire in the double-entendre genre of 1950s rhythm and blues’ (George A. Moonoogian, 1990)[21], initially composed for Big Mama Thornton by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller in 1952. Thornton was an eminent figure in the black music industry amidst the 1950s, with her predominant genre being blues, thus ‘Hound Dog’ was devised to enhance her moaning style[22]. Thornton’s authenticity gave a depth dimension to the single; a black woman unapologetically using African American expressionisms in a song derivative from the black arts during the age of segregation. Thorntons impact on the racial climate plaguing the United States has not gone understated, as she was credited with ‘helping to spur the evolution of black R&B into rock music’[23]. Thornton had become a mouthpiece for the introduction of the black arts into contemporary culture, setting the curve for those who came after her. Her single ‘Hound Dog’ became a sensation, pinnacle to her career in the music industry, and was covered by many artists both in her life and death, varying in universality, genre, and interpretation. Among those was Elvis Presley. A man often commemorated as the ‘King of Rock ‘n’ Roll’ saw his fame rocket following the release of his cover of ‘Hound Dog’ in 1956. Elvis’ version saw the use of ‘Habanera rhythm’, a Latin American riff form derived from black-Hispanic communities which differentiated his from Thornton’s original piece[24]. Elvis catalysed a new age for pop culture, diversifying the music presented to the masses, and provided a muse for those whose work went unappreciated. He utilised black culture throughout his career in a way that had never been seen by a white musician of the era. However, though revolutionary, many deemed Elvis to be a corrupting force over the young population while capitalising off the persecution of black culture. Freya Jarmen-Ivens contended that ‘Presley’s version of ‘Hound Dog’ started its life as blackface comedy’[25], a song whose origins were taken from black culture yet unable to be sung by black musicians, had become a merely a humorous advance at imitating those unable to enter the pop culture sphere. The voice of black artists had been taken, or perhaps stolen, by a white man who had exploited his privilege for his own financial and professional gains. His assumption of black bravado was not widely accepted as his signature gyration, openly taken from black men, was seen to be a corrupting force[26]; encouraging hyper-sexuality among the young white population, a trait previously condemned of black communities. White youth were seen to be indoctrinated into blackness, thus Elvis’ reign as the ‘King of rock ‘n’ Roll’ fuelled racial prejudice further as tropes associated and denounced of black communities were being seen within white teenagers. Perhaps the most controversial performance of his career was that of ‘Hound Dog’ on the Berle show; Robert Fink asserted that this performance was ‘intended to be humorous, troping off white overreactions to a black sexual innuendo’[27]. Despite such condemnation from primarily white crowds due to the way he had normalised “black hyper-sexuality”, and media publications who made attempt to eliminate his black influences, the African American community took a rather different stance to Elvis Presley. Celebrated black musicians such as Chuck Berry amongst them, this community commended him for bringing their culture into the public sphere as they were evidently restricted from doing this themselves, and when watching a white man publicly take refuge in blues while mimicking their flamboyance, black artists and people alike were ‘reminded of their cultural significance’ (DuBose-Morris, 2022). In reference to Von Ranke’s assertion, when considering the racial lens, the significance of Elvis Presley’s ‘Hound Dog’ cannot be understated. Though impacting varying societal groups dissimilarly, the racial components of his work irrefutably greatly influenced the 1960’s.

Social History: Written by Ella Nugent

To show the influence ‘The King of Rock and Roll’ had on society, Elvis Presley’s 5th June 1956 performance of ‘Hound Dog’ on The Milton Berle Show will now be analysed through the lens of a social historian. Social History is arguably the most complicated historical discipline to define, with it covering ‘virtually everything’ according to Cannadine and Breuilly.[28] For the purpose of this essay, I will take social history to mean the study of interactions between the different factions in society. The society in question is late 1950s and early 1960s America, and the dividing social faction, generation. Reactions to Elvis and his televised performance of ‘Hound Dog’, will be placed against the backdrop of the post-World War II questions surrounding morality, ideology and religion.

Elvis was arguably one of the most adored and at the same time, hated figures of mid to late 20th century America, and the world. Yet, regardless of divided social opinions of his music, performances, lyrics and gyrating hips, it is undoubtable he was an icon – with significant influence on the social and cultural landscape of the nation.

Using an element of pop culture as a historical source, has been contested in social historiography. However, as Leff argues, I believe that such sources can be used ‘to elucidate the ideological contours of American culture’ and society in a way that other sources fail to do.[29] The lyrics of the song, as well as the visual performance through the medium of television, will be utilised as a cultural source that reflected and influenced American society in 1956. 

The post war period was characterised by two clashing social revolutions. On the one hand, there was a rise in Christian conservatism; originating from the older generations desire to return to pre-war normalcy, in the suburbs and Levittown’s of America.[30] On the other hand, the 1950s saw the birth of a new liberal generation, who would go on to be the mass behind the 1960s Counterculture movement. 

The variation in reactions to Elvis and his 1956 performance exemplifies this generational ideological conflict. The social relationship between parent and child has always typically been characterised by opposing forces of control and rebellion. Despite this, Cohen describes how ‘Adults' fear of youthful rebellion and their urge to control youth became particularly glaring during the 1950s’, as a result of the shifting social landscape at the time.[31] Analogously, Ward describes a ‘rock and roll earthquake in early 1956’ of which Elvis Presley was ‘to become the national and international epicentre’.[32] Cohen goes on to analyse the causes of the ‘generational split in the 1950s’. arguing it was caused by fears surrounding juvenile delinquency. [33] The 1951 book ‘The Adolescent’ supports this contemporary view stating ‘to many people, adolescence [was] almost synonymous with delinquency’.[34] In the eyes of the older generation Elvis was the embodiment of immorality. Being only 21 years old during his appearance on the Milton Berle show, perhaps Elvis’ own youth contributed to the levels of success he experienced with the young generation. Martin describes how ‘hundreds of thousands of mostly white, middle-class girls, who screamed, danced, and sobbed to the point of “enthrallment,” “near-hysteria,” “mass hysteria,”’ according to multiple contemporary newspapers and magazines.[35]

On the flip side, the 5^{th of} June performance also received much backlash from concerned parents; as a result of the lyrics filled with sexual inuendo, and emphasised by Elvis’ thrusting hips. ‘Hound Dog’ is a reference to an old African American term for a sex worker, giving the song an implicit sexual meaning. The controversy stirred by his performance directly led to his appearance on the Steve Allan Show less than a month later, where he sang the song to a physical hound with the camera only showing above the singer’s hips. Fairchild notes that ‘It was a clear attempt to neuter after the hysteria created by his appearance on the Milton Berle Show the previous month’.[36] Despite this second performance being personally regarded by Presley as one of the lowest points in his career, it did not seem to affect Elvis’ popularity, as the song suffered astronomical success – topping the 1956 charts ‘in almost every genre’.[37]

Despite the obvious influence of Elvis on the teen minds of the decade, it is inadequate to assume that pop culture was the only influence. Especially when considering all the other social influences of ‘family, school, church, peer groups, advertising, and so much more’, an idea presented by Engelhardt.[38] Indeed church membership rose from 50-63% of the population from 1940-1960, coinciding with the rise in the post war, conservative, American societies focus on morality.[39] However, one could argue that religion was losing its power as a social influence in the face of mass media. Why would there need to be such ‘spirited’ Chistian backlash to Rock and Roll if the genre was not significantly influencing the youthful generation of America? Such backlash was led by men like Asa Carter, who viewed the Genre as the destroyer of ‘the entire moral structure of man, Christianity, of spirituality in Holy marriage’.[40] Here again it is the sexuality of rock and roll and Elvis that caused such social turbulence; instability being a recurrent theme in the analysis of Elvis’ Hound Dog performance.

Elvis, the man, and his 1956 performance on the Milton Berle show were at the centre of the ideological conflict between generations, that characterised the decade. Elvis had a significant influence on the younger post war generation, adults’ relationship with their teens and fears of juvenile delinquency. His impact on society consolidates his status as in icon, in the eyes of a Social Historian.

History of Music and Popular Culture: Written by Rory Clark

When approaching the source considering the history of music and pop culture, Elvis is indisputably presented as an icon. The novelty of his character and his new style of music shot him to fame, and a considerable effect on the youth of the day followed. In the long term his impact is evidenced by his influences on modern day celebrities, and how the wider impacts of celebrities were transformed. His diverse upbringing attributed to his unique fusion of genres, and although not the first or only artist to be making such music, he certainly starred prominently as a leading figurehead of rock and roll.

Initially, the source is of interest due to how the style of this performance was unlike the norm for musical artists at the time. Its continued presence until the present day, through references and covers, demonstrates how transformative and inspirational this has been. On its broadcast, the rebellious image of Elvis’ swinging hips encapsulated the youth, and this influence is evident in the ensuing fashion trends and dance styles, his iconic jumpsuits and hairstyle extending his image beyond just his stage performance. In stark contrast to considerable disapproval from the older generation, the younger generation was heavily influenced performances like this, ‘through which a torrent of pent-up youthful energy could burst with all its subversive, revolutionary power to change forever the heart and soul of American popular culture.’[41]

Furthermore, with the increasing tendency for media consumers to nominate celebrities as moral role models, a concept explored by Boorstin (a contemporary to Elvis), the influence of icons such as Elvis grew well beyond the world of entertainment and music.[42] The relationship between the media and celebrities was redefined, as Elvis received an unprecedented level of exposure, at a level and breadth which musical artists had not previously experienced. As American rock and roll then began to spread internationally, he became one of the first global pop icons, shaping how other cultures viewed American music and style.

Transforming the public image of a pop star did not only impact the public, but also makes this source interesting due to its impact on celebrity culture, evident even in pop stars today. Stars such as Bruno Mars and Beyonce have covered Hound Dog in live performances, the latter even citing Elvis specifically on numerous occasions as a leading influence on her music. This timelessness demonstrates the lasting long-term impacts of Elvis, and how he ‘set the mould for what a prototypical superstar is,’[43] supporting the argument that he was indeed a true icon regarding celebrity and pop culture.

The music itself must also be considered, particularly in comparison with the styles of music that were widely popular before this release. Elvis was by no means the first to create a product that was an obvious fusion of inspirations and influences, but ‘nobody elevated that fusion to the world stage [more] than Presley.’[44] His version was in fact eligible for both R&B and rock and roll charts, reaching such success in both that the RCA used pressing plants of other companies to keep record supply up with the remarkable demand.[45] This did not only reach a variety of audiences geographically, but as discussed previously Elvis connected with a range of social and ethnic groups. Contextualising this connection is necessary to understand why this impact was so great – for much of his childhood, Elvis lived largely in rented rooms, near numerous African American neighbourhoods. It was here that he encountered black musical styles, which along with spirituals at church and the country music that his family listened to, contributed to his tendency to appeal to a wide range of social and ethnic backgrounds.[46] Such breadth was uncommon for artists to have, especially with this level of success.

Although not the only artist to be modernising a range of traditional genres into Rock and Roll for the contemporary audience, Elvis saw particular public exposure as he was pushed by producers into the public eye, essentially becoming a ‘major catalyst of the rock and roll movement.’[47]Therefore, although not the sole pioneer of the genre, due to the racial segregation as previously discussed, Elvis was certainly a prolific icon when considering the history of music and pop culture.

Elvis’ 5th June Performance of ‘Hound Dog’ on the Milton Berle Show is arguably one of the most memorable performances of his career. It encapsulates the essence of ‘The King of Rock and Roll’, from his swaying hips to bold lyrics, and diehard fans. It inspired a strong reaction from all spheres of American society, which we have used different historical approaches to analyse.  

The political approach viewed Elvis as a revolutionary in a time when political orthodoxy characterised America. The battle between conservatism and liberalism was ascending with desires for Elvis to campaign for either ideology. His significant ability to oppose ideologies demonstrated his ability to overcome barriers of political control and emerge as a liberal icon with conservative values. Elvis received backlash from this performance for its racial significance – many interpreted the act as a disservice to and diminution of black culture. However, the African American community itself gave much support, endorsing the celebration of their culture, a feat which the segregation and racism of the period restricted them from doing. The controversy surrounding the singer extends into a Social Historical interpretation of the source. Elvis Presley sat at the epicentre of the generational battle between the adult and youth populations; a conflict infused with questions surrounding the morals and ideology at the heart of American society. His impact on such discussions was significant, as he voiced progressive themes (such as sexuality) through his songs and performances to millions of fans, and in turn influenced late 1950s society. This influence spread beyond these fans of the time, as Elvis’ impact on the History of Music and Pop Culture is evidently significant. Indeed, his freeing and unorthodox performances did draw a huge variety of reactions initially, but his lasting impact can still be seen in the celebrity culture of today. His unique fusion of musical styles appealed to a variety of groups, becoming an indisputable icon as his impact spread globally.

Individually, these multiple historical approaches unveil a different aspect of the source, and indeed of late 1950s America. Together, however, they paint the complete picture of Elvis Presley, the icon.

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[1] Tosh, J., The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of History 7^th ed (Abingdon, 2022), p.7.

[2] Ranke, L., Histories of the Latin and German Nations from 1494 to 1514 (1952), p.74.

[3] Hartley, L.P., The Go-Between (1958), p.7.

[4] DuBose-Morris, J., ‘Does the King of Rock ‘n’ Roll owe it all to Black culture?’ https://www.documentjournal.com/2022/08/elvis-presley-film-austin-butler-black-art-music-culture-baz-luhrmann-aretha-franklin-beach-boys-otis-redding/, accessed 17/11/2023.

[5] M. Curtin, ‘Censorship of Rock and Roll’, Emerging Writers, 3 (2021), p.1.

[6] J. Kurth, ‘A History of Inherent Contradictions: The Origins and Ends of American Conservatism’, Nomos, 56 (2016), p.18. 

[7] J. Meyerowitz, ‘The Liberal 1950s? Reinterpreting Post-war American Sexual Culture’ in K. Hagemann and Sonya Michel (eds.), Gender and the Long Postwar: Reconsiderations of the United States and the Two Germanys, 1945-1989, (Baltimore, 2014), p.306.

[8] J. Meyerowitz, ‘The Liberal 1950s? Reinterpreting Post-war American Sexual Culture’, p.297.

[9] ‘Elvis rocks “The Milton Berle Show”’, 16 November 2009: <https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/elvis-rocks-the-milton-berle-show>, (accessed: 10/12/2023). 

[10] A. Hanson, ‘Elvis and Politics: The King Kept His Thoughts to Himself’, April 2009: < http://www.elvis-history-blog.com/elvis-politics.html>, (accessed: 10/12/2023).

[11] ‘“Hound Dog” and 1950 Race Relations’, <https://teachrock.org/lesson/interdisciplinary-lesson-hound-dog/>, (accessed: 10/12/2023)

[12] B. Smedley, ‘The Conservatism of Elvis Presley’, 15 August 2002: <https://fugitiveink.wordpress.com/2002/08/15/the-conservatism-of-elvis-presley/>, (accessed:10/12/2023).

[13] B. Smedley, ‘The Conservatism of Elvis Presley’.

[14] I. Inglis, ‘Ed Sullivan Show and Censored Sounds of the Sixties’, The Journal of Popular Culture, 39 (2006), pp.558-75.

[15] I. Inglis, ‘Ed Sullivan Show and Censored Sounds of the Sixties’, pp.558-575.

[16] B. Kachejian, ‘Elvis Presley, Censorship, And The Power of the People’ in Classic Rock History, 2016: <https://www.classicrockhistory.com/elvis-presley-censorship-and-the-power-of-the-people/>, (accessed: 10/12/2023).

[17] B. Kachejian, ‘Elvis Presley, Censorship, And The Power of the People’.

[18] I. Inglis, ‘Ed Sullivan’, pp.558-575. 

[19] B. Kachejian, ‘Elvis Presley, Censorship, And The Power of the People’.

[20] S. Allen, and B. Miles, ‘Unapologetic Blackness in Action: Embodied Resistance and Social Movement Scenes in Black Celebrity Activism’ Humanity & Society, 44/4 (2020), p.377.

[21] G. Gart and R. Ames, Duke/Peacock Records: An Illustrated History with Discography (1990). P.54.

[22] D. Fricke, ‘Leiber and Stoller: Rolling Stone’s 1990 interview With the Songwriting Legends’, 22 August 2022: <https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/leiber-and-stoller-rolling-stones-1990-interview-with-the-songwriting-legends-246405/amp/>, (accessed 17/11/2023).

[23] R. Kennedy and R. MacNutt, Big Sound: Small Record Companies and the Rise of American Music (Indiana, 1999), p.54.

[24] R. Brewer, ‘The use of Habanera rhythm in Rockabilly music’, American Music, 17/3 (1999), p.316.

[25] F. Jarman-Ivens, Oh Boy!: Masculinities and Popular Music, (Routledge, 2013), p.109.

[26] J. DuBose-Morris, ‘Does the King of Rock ‘n’ Roll owe it all to Black culture?’, 24 August 2022: <https://www.documentjournal.com/2022/08/elvis-presley-film-austin-butler-black-art-music-culture-baz-luhrmann-aretha-franklin-beach-boys-otis-redding/>, (accessed 17/11/2023).

[27] F. Robert, ‘Elvis Everywhere: Musicology and Popular Music Studies at the Twilight of the Cannon’, in R. Beebe, D Fulbrook and B Saunders (eds.), Rock Over the Edge: Transformations in Popular Music Culture, (Durham, 2002), p.97.

[28] J. Breuilly and D. Cannadine, 'What is Social History?', <https://www.historytoday.com/archive/what-social-history>, accessed: 23/11/2023.

[29] B. Leff, ‘Popular Culture as Historical Text: Using Mass Media to Teach American History’, The History Teacher, 50/2 (2017), p.227.

[30] For further reading see: J. Schoenwald, A Time for Choosing: The Rise of Modern American Conservatism (New York, 2002).

[31] R. Cohen, ‘The Delinquents: Censorship and Youth Culture in Recent U. S. History’ History of Education Quarterly, 37/3 (1997), p.251.

[32] B. Ward, ‘Civil Rights and Rock and Roll: Revisiting the Nat King Cole Attack of 1956’ OAH Magazine of History, 24/2 (2010), p.22.

[33] R. Cohen, ‘The Delinquents: Censorship and Youth Culture in Recent U. S. History’, p.264.

[34] M. Farnham, The Adolescent (New York, 1951), p.vii-viii.

[35] R. Martin, ‘The Naturalized Gender Order Of Rock and Roll’, Journal of Communication Inquiry, 19/1 (1995), p.53.

[36] C. Fairchild, ‘The Medium and Materials of Popular Music: ‘Hound Dog’, Turntablism and Muzak as Situated Musical Practices’, Popular Music, 27/1 (2008), p.107.

[37] H.R. Waller, ‘Elvis Has Left the Building’, 26 October 2020: <https://confluence.gallatin.nyu.edu/sections/criticism/elvis-has-left-the-building>, (accessed: 07/12/2023).

[38] T. Engelhardt, The End of Victory Culture: Cold War America and the Disillusioning of a Generation (New York, 1995), p.135.

[39] R. Cohen, ‘The Delinquents: Censorship and Youth Culture in Recent U. S. History’, p.257.

[40] A. Carter, The Southerner, March 1956.

[41] C. Fairchild, ‘The Medium and Materials of Popular Music: ‘Hound Dog’, Turntablism and Muzak as Situated Musical Practices’, Popular Music, 27/1 (2008), p.106. 

[42] D. Boorstin, The image: A guide to pseudo-events in America, (New York, 1961), p.58. 

[43] P. Panay, Two Beats Ahead: What Great Musical Minds Teach Us About Creativity and Innovation, (New York, 2021), p.179.

[44] ‘5 Ways Elvis Presley Forever Changed the Music Industry, From Vegas Residencies to Cultural Fusion’, 11 April 2022:<https://www.grammy.com/news/elvis-presley-graceland-colonel-tom-parker-changed-music-industry-king-rock-roll-innovator-list-las-vegas-love-me-tender>, (accessed: 25/11/23).

[45] C. Fairchild, ‘The Medium and Materials of Popular Music: ‘Hound Dog’, Turntablism and Muzak as Situated Musical Practices’, Popular Music, 27/1 (2008), p.108.

[46] ‘”Hound Dog” and 1950 Race Relations’: <https://teachrock.org/lesson/interdisciplinary-lesson-hound-doG/>, (accessed: 25/11/23).

[47] ‘Why Is Elvis Called “The King of Rock ‘N’ Roll?”’, 30 November 2023: <https://www.britannica.com/story/why-is-elvis-called-the-king-of-rock-n-roll#:~:text=Presley%20was%20not%20the%20sole,rock%20and%20roll%20movement>, (accessed: 08/12/23).